01352nas a2200217   4500000000100000008004100001260001200042100002900054700003200083700002700115700002400142700002300166700002100189700001600210245004700226856007200273300001400345490000700359520075400366022001401120       2016                            d  c2016-091 aLambert I. J. C. Bergers1 aChristianne M. A. Reijnders1 aLenie J. van den Broek1 aSander W. Spiekstra1 aTanja D. de Gruijl1 aEster M. Weijers1 aSusan Gibbs00aImmune-competent human skin disease models  uhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1359644616301581  a1479-14880 v213 aAll skin diseases have an underlying immune component. Owing to differences in animal and human immunology, the majority of drugs fail in the preclinical or clinical testing phases. Therefore animal alternative methods that incorporate human immunology into in vitro skin disease models are required to move the field forward. This review summarizes the progress, using examples from fibrosis, autoimmune diseases, psoriasis, cancer and contact allergy. The emphasis is on co-cultures and 3D organotypic models. Our conclusion is that current models are inadequate and future developments with immune-competent skin-on-chip models based on induced pluripotent stem cells could provide a next generation of skin models for drug discovery and testing.  a1359-6446